invest Archives | Page 92 of 180

Oct

2023

What Is Market Breadth?

By Laurel Tincher | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

Market breadth indicators are mathematical formulas that show how many stocks in a particular market or stock index are increasing in price compared to how many are declining in price.

Market breadth is useful for understanding the current and predicted movements of stock indices (groups of stocks and securities based on an industry, region, company size, or other factors), as well as for analyzing stocks and understanding how broad-based a rally or pullback might be.

Determining the breadth of the market requires using a set of technical indicators to assess the price and movement of the index.

What Is Breadth Ratio?

If the majority of stocks in an index are increasing in value, this is called positive market breadth, and the index is said to be in confirmation in this circumstance. This is a bullish indicator that shows that the overall market is in a rising trend and is likely to continue going up in value.

The opposite also holds true. If the majority of stocks are decreasing in value, this is referred to as negative market breadth. This indicates that there is a bearish market sentiment and the index may decrease in value.

If the stock index is rising in value but the market breadth indicators show a negative market breadth, the index is said to be in divergence. And vice versa.

Since market breadth can show the direction of the overall market, traders use it to assess the health of the index as well as the broader market. However, market breadth indicators aren’t always completely accurate, and they can’t be used as predictions of market changes or price reversals.

Sometimes market breadth indicators signal a market movement too early for investors to make use of it. Market breadth is one of the inputs used to generate CNN’s Fear and Greed Index.

How is Market Breadth Used by Investors?

One way institutional and retail investors use market breadth is to reveal underlying market conditions that may not be immediately apparent from looking at the current price movement of an index on a chart. If a few shares in an index have large price movements up or down, this can affect the average and shift the entire index, even if the majority of stocks in the index are going in the opposite direction. The direction of an index is not always an accurate representation of the performance of individual securities that are in the index.

Market breadth can act as a warning to traders to show them potential future price movements of an index, or can show how many stocks are actually moving following a specific market event or trend. Given its limitations, most traders use market breadth in conjunction with other tools and indicators that provide a comprehensive picture of market conditions and the health of the index.

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Types of Market Breadth Indicators

Market breadth indicators are mathematical formulas used to measure how many stocks are rising and falling within an index, as well as their trading volume. Investors use them to discover market sentiment, predict whether an index is likely to rise or fall in the future, and to assess the strength of an upward or downward price trend.

Traders use these indicators along with other types of technical analysis tools such as looking at chart patterns. The difference between breadth indicators and other technical indicators is that technical indicators more broadly signal support and resistance, look for profitable trade signals, and assess trading volume and asset prices. Breadth indicators look specifically at the movements and volume of a stock index.

There are several market breadth indicators used to assess an index. Each indicator shows different information. Together they can confirm stock index price trends, show a picture of index health, and help predict future stock price movements such as reversals. Some market breadth indicators add or subtract each new day’s value from the previous day, making them cumulative calculations, whereas others use each period of time as a separate data point.

Some assess an entire index while others assess individual stocks within an index. Different breadth indicators may be used for different purposes depending on what a trader wants to find out and how in depth they want to go into technical analysis of stocks and indices.

Popular indicators include:

Volume of Trade

One technical indicator often used with market breadth is volume of trade. Volume of trade is the number of shares of a particular stock within an index traded within a particular period of time. Generally, traders look at a period of 52 weeks, or one year. It’s important to look at trading volume of individual stocks because if a stock has a high volume of trade then the price movements have a large impact on the overall index.

Advance/Decline Line

Another popular breadth indicator is the Advance/Decline Line, which adds or subtracts net advances of a new period from those of a previous period. Net advances are the number of increasing or decreasing stocks. This gives a cumulative picture of the direction of the index, showing the investor sentiment for all stocks included in the index.

On Balance Volume (OBV)

To find this indicator, traders add or subtract trading volume based on an index closing price.

McClellan Summation Index

This market breadth indicator creates a running total based on the McClellan Oscillator, with the index going up when the oscillator is positive and down when it is negative.

Arms Index (TRIN)

Investors calculate this indicator by dividing the ratio between increasing and declining stocks by the ratio of increasing to decreasing trade volume.

Chaikin Oscillator

The oscillator shifts with volume and price movements.

Up/Down Volume Ratio

To find this ratio, traders divide rising stock volume by decreasing stock volume.

Up/Down Volume Spread

Traders calculate this indicator by subtracting down volume from up volume.

Tick Index

This indicator looks at how many stocks are trading on an uptick versus how many are trading on a downtick.

New Highs-Lows Index

This indicator looks at a one-year period and compares the number of stocks with a 52-week high to the number with a 52-week low. If more than 50% of stocks have a high or a low, this can be an indication that the index is moving in a bullish or bearish direction.

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Limitations and Downsides of Market Breadth

Although market breadth indicators are a valuable tool for traders, they do have some limitations. They can help investors decide what trades to make, but they do not serve as accurate predictions of the future. They don’t always show upcoming reversals or price confirmations, and are just one tool in analyzing a stock.

Every trading situation is different, so the same indicators can’t be equally useful in all situations. Also, some indicators might show a large or small movement that isn’t reflected in the index price. For instance, if the trading volume changes a lot during a trading day but the price doesn’t change very much, a volume indicator will show a large shift that isn’t an accurate representation of movements in the market.

The Takeaway

Market breadth is a useful technical analysis tool for helping traders understand index markets. Although it has some limitations, it can give them a sense of whether recent market movements reflect broad-based trends or whether large movements by a few stocks are skewing the overall numbers.

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Oct

2023

What Are Emerging Markets?

By Ashley Kilroy | Financial Independence, Growing Wealth, invest, Investing, Terminology | Comments Off

Emerging markets or emerging market economies (EMEs) are in the process of achieving the building blocks of developed nations: they’re establishing regulatory bodies, creating infrastructure, fostering political stability, and supporting mature financial markets. But many emerging markets still face challenges that developed market countries have overcome, and that contributes to potential instability.

To further answer the question, “What are emerging markets?”, it helps to understand developed markets.

Developed economies have higher standards of living and per-capita income, strong infrastructure, stable political systems, and mature capital markets. The U.S., Europe, U.K, and Japan are among the biggest developed nations.

Because these economies wield so much power globally, many investors don’t realize that, in truth, emerging markets make up the majority of the global economy.

India, China, and Brazil are a few of the larger countries that fall into the emerging markets category. Some emerging market economies, like these three, are also key global players — and investors may benefit by understanding the opportunities emerging markets present.

What is an Emerging Market?

In essence, an emerging market refers to an economy that can become a developed, advanced economy soon. And because an emerging market may be a rapidly growing one, it may offer investment potential in certain sectors.

Internationally focused investors tend to see these countries as potential sources of growth because their economies can resemble an established yet still-young startup company. The infrastructure and blueprint for success have been laid out, but things need to evolve before the economy can truly take off and ultimately mature. At the same time, owing to the challenges emerging market economies often face, there are also potential risks when investing in emerging markets.

Investors might bear the brunt of political turmoil, local infrastructure hurdles, a volatile home currency and illiquid capital markets (if certain enterprises are state-run or otherwise privately held, for example).

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Emerging Market Examples

What constitutes an emerging market economy is somewhat fluid, and the list can vary depending on the source. Morgan Stanley Capital International (MSCI) classifies 24 countries as emerging; Dow Jones also classifies 24 as emerging. There is some overlap between lists, and some countries may be added or removed as their status changes. Greece, for example, is no longer considered a developed market but an emerging one.

India is one of the world’s biggest emerging economies. Increasingly, though, some investors see India as pushing the bounds of its emerging market status.

China

China is the second-largest economy globally by gross domestic product (GDP). It has a large manufacturing base, plenty of technological innovation, and the largest population of any country in the world.

Yet China still has a few characteristics typical of an emerging market. For example, the gross national income per capita falls below the threshold established by the World Bank for a developed country: about $12,600 per year versus the higher standard of above $13,200 per year. With its Communist-led political system, China has embraced many aspects of capitalism in its economy but investors may experience some turbulence related to government laws and policy changes. The Renminbi, China’s official currency, has a history of volatility. And finally, post-Covid, China’s economy has lagged.

India

India is another big global economy, and it’s considered among the top 10 richest countries in the world, yet India still has a low per-capita income that is typical of an emerging market and poverty is widespread.

At the same time, India was ranked as being among the more advanced emerging markets, thanks to its robust financial system, growing foreign investment, and strong industrials, especially in telecommunication and technology.

Characteristics of an Emerging Market Economy

As noted above, there isn’t a single definition of an emerging market, but there are some markers that distinguish these economies from developed nations.

Fast-Paced Growth

An emerging market economy is often in a state of rapid expansion. There is perhaps no better time to be invested in the growth of a country than when it enters this phase.

At this point, an emerging market has laid much of the groundwork necessary for becoming a developed nation. Capital markets and regulatory bodies have been established, personal incomes are rising, innovation is flourishing, and GDP is climbing.

Lower Per-Capita Income

The World Bank keeps a record of the gross national income (GNI) of many countries. For the fiscal year of 2022, lower-middle-income economies are defined as having GNI per capita of between $1,136 and $4,465 per year. At the same time, upper-middle-income economies are defined as having GNI per capita between $4,466 and $13,845. (By way of contrast, the U.S. is considered a high-income economy, with a GNI of $76,370.)

The vast majority of countries that are considered emerging markets fall into the lower-middle and upper-middle-income ranges. For example, India, Pakistan, and the Philippines are lower-middle-income, while China, Brazil, and Mexico are upper-middle-income. Thus, all these countries are referred to as emerging markets despite the considerable differences in their economic progression.

Political and Economic Instability

For most EMEs, volatility is par for the course. Risk and volatility tend to go hand in hand, and both are common among emerging market investments.

Emerging economies can be rife with internal conflicts, political turmoil, and economic upheaval. Some of these countries might see revolutions, political coups, or become targets of sanctions by more powerful developed nations.

Any one of these factors can have an immediate impact on financial markets and the performance of various sectors. Investors need to know the lay of the land when considering which EMEs to invest in.

Infrastructure and Climate

While some EMEs have well-developed infrastructure, many are a mix of sophisticated cities and rural regions that lack technology, services and basic amenities like reliable transportation. This lack of infrastructure can leave emerging markets especially vulnerable to any kind of crisis, whether political or from a natural disaster.

For example, if a country relies on agricultural exports for a significant portion of its trade, a tsunami, hurricane, or earthquake could derail related commerce.

On the other hand, climate challenges may also present investment opportunities that are worth considering.

Currency Crises

The value of a country’s currency is an important factor to keep in mind when investing in emerging markets.

Sometimes it can look like stock prices are soaring, but that might not be the case if the currency is declining.

If a stock goes up by 50% in a month, but the national currency declines by 90% during the same period, investors could see a net loss, although they might not recognize it as such until converting gains to their own native currency.

Heavy Reliance on Exports

Emerging market economies tend to rely heavily on exports. That means their economies depend in large part on selling goods and services to other countries.

A developed nation might house all the needs of production within its own shores while also being home to a population with the income necessary to purchase those goods and services. Developing countries, however, must export the bulk of what they create.

Emerging Economies’ Impact on Local Politics vs. Global Economy

Emerging economies play a significant role in the growth of the global economy, accounting for about 50% of the world’s economic growth. Moreover, it’s predicted that by 2050 three countries will have the biggest economies: the U.S., China, and India, with only one currently being a developed economy.

But, while emerging markets help fuel global growth, some of those with higher growth opportunities also come with turbulent political situations.

As an investor, the political climate of emerging market investments can pose serious risks. Although there is potential for higher returns, especially in EMEs that are in a growth phase, investors need to consider the potential downside. For example, Thailand and South Korea are emerging economies with high growth potential, but there is also a lot of political unrest in these regions.

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Pros and Cons of Investing in Emerging Markets

Let’s recap some of the pros and cons associated with EME investments.

Pros

• High-profit potential: Selecting the right investments in EMEs at the right time may result in returns that might be greater than most other investments. Rapidly growing economies could provide ample opportunity for profits. But as noted above, it’s impossible to guarantee the timing of any investment.

• Global diversification: Investing in EMEs provides a chance to hold assets that go beyond the borders of an investor’s home country. So even if an unforeseen event should happen that contributes to slower domestic growth, it’s possible that investments elsewhere could perform well and provide some balance.

Cons

• High volatility: As a general rule, investments with higher liquidity and market capitalization tend to be less volatile because it takes significant capital inflows or outflows to move their prices.

EMEs tend to have smaller capital markets combined with ongoing challenges, making them vulnerable to volatility.

• High risk: With high volatility and uncertainty comes higher risk. What’s more, that risk can’t always be quantified. A situation might be even more unpredictable than it seems if factors coincide (e.g. a drought plus political instability).

All investments carry risk, but EMEs bring with them a host of fresh variables that can twist and turn in unexpected ways.

• Low accessibility: While liquid capital markets are a characteristic of emerging markets, that liquidity still doesn’t match up to that of developed economies.

It may be necessary to consult with an investment advisor or pursue other means of deploying capital that may be undesirable to some investors.

Why Invest in Emerging Markets?

Emerging markets are generally thought of as high-risk, high-reward investments.

They are also yet another way to diversify an investment portfolio. Having all of your portfolio invested in the assets of a single country puts you at the mercy of that country’s circumstances. If something goes wrong, like social unrest, a currency crisis, or widespread natural disasters, that might impact your investments.

Being invested in multiple countries can help mitigate the risk of something unexpected happening to any single economy.

The returns from emerging markets might also exceed those found elsewhere. If investors can capitalize on the high rate of growth in an emerging market at the right time and avoid any of the potential mishaps, they could stand to profit. Of course timing any market, let alone a more complex and potentially volatile emerging market, may not be a winning strategy.

Recommended: Pros & Cons of Global Investments

The Takeaway

While developed nations like the U.S. and Europe and Japan regularly make headlines as global powerhouses, emerging market countries actually make up the majority of the world’s economy — and possibly, some very exciting opportunities for investors.

China and India are two of the biggest emerging markets, and not because of their vast populations. They both have maturing financial markets and strong industrial sectors and a great deal of foreign investment. And like other emerging markets, these countries have seen rapid growth in certain sectors (e.g. technology).

Despite their economic stature, though, both countries still face challenges common to many emerging economies, including political turbulence, currency fluctuations and low per-capita income.

It’s factors like these that can contribute to the risks of investing in emerging markets. And yet, emerging markets may also present unique investment opportunities owing to the fact that they are growing rapidly.

Emerging market exchange-traded funds (ETFs) might invest in different assets within a single country or spread their investments throughout multiple countries. Bonds can also play a role in an emerging market portfolio. Many countries with developing economies have used the issuance of new debt to borrow money to build out their infrastructure. That means some emerging economies could offer bonds with attractive yields. But investors need to carefully weigh the potential risks.

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Oct

2023

Introduction to Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)

By Brian O'Connell | Financial Independence, Growing Wealth, invest, Investing, Terminology | Comments Off

Properly formulated, the weighted average cost of capital, or WACC, merges a business’s cost of capital across financial components. Once weighted for proportional balance, WACC bundles all company financial sources (with an emphasis on equity and debt) and adds them together. The final figures represent the current value of a company, or a project or initiative undertaken by a company.

Understanding the weighted average cost of capital, or the cost of capital, is both a business calculus and an economic term. It’s a term to describe the relationship between two key economic components – equity and debt, as a financial ratio.

What Is WACC?

The WACC is the rate that a company must pay, on average, to finance its operations. It’s a figure that business leaders use to make strategic decisions, and a data point used by investors as part of their fundamental analysis of a company.

In general, a low weighted average cost of capital shows that a business is in good financial health and can more efficiently and economically pay for company operations, either through debt financing or equity financing. Earnings are robust enough to curb company debt loads and offer solid investment returns to market investors, which should increase capital to the company.

Recommended: How to Know When to Sell a Stock

A higher weighted average cost of capital suggests the opposite outcome. The firm is likely paying more to handle their debt and paying more to raise capital for company projects. That scenario can lead to a business with a lower valuation with less demand from investors to buy company stock or invest in its bond issues, as returns on those investments would likely be lower.

Who Uses Weighted Average Cost of Capital?

The weighted average cost of capital formula can be used by a number of people in or around a business. That can include company management, who can use it to guide decisions about the direction of the company, along with investors and investment analysts, who are keeping tabs from the outside.

High vs Low WACC Calculations

Investors can use the results of WACC calculations to help guide their investment decisions. In general, a high WACC may be a turn-off for some investors, as it indicates that the company isn’t as likely to provide investors with a high rate of return. The opposite is also true – a low WACC may be a bullish sign for investors.

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What is the WACC Formula?

The calculation used for WACC includes cost of equity and cost of debt, along with additional economic components commonly used by businesses.

Here is how those components are broken down in a WACC formula.

• E = Market value of the business’s equity

• V = Total value of capital (equity + debt)

• Re = Cost of equity

• D = Market value of the business’s debt

• Rd = Cost of debt

• T = Tax rate

Once you have those numbers, here’s how to calculate WACC:

How to Calculate WACC

Calculating WACC looks like this:

WACC = (E/V x Re) + ((D/V x Rd) x (1-T))

To use the WACC formula, you need to first multiply the costs of each financial component and include that component’s proportional rate. Once you’ve arrived at those figures, multiply them by the company’s corporate tax rate. The resulting figure gives you the company’s weighted average cost of capital.

Difficulties With Using WACC

There’s a caveat to be mindful of when calculating the weighted average cost of capital: The formula heavily relies on the cost of equity in its equation, which is largely unknown, since that value can vary. A company’s share capital depends on what the market (i.e., investors) are willing to pay to invest in the company, as exhibited by the company’s stock price.

Given that unknown, companies must evaluate the expected return of their stock, through an investor’s eyes. That represents the value of the company’s equity and any effort to hide or diminish that value could put a damper on a company’s share price.

That’s why companies factor the estimated cost of equity into the WACC equation – they view the cost of equity as the amount of capital a company needs to spend to maintain a stock price that’s largely acceptable to market investors.

An Example of the WACC at Work

As an example of the WACC at work, let’s look at a company’s weighted average cost of capital – let’s say ABC Company has an annual return of 15% and an average cost of 5% annually to pay for operations. That dynamic represents a 10% profit on its investment in the company.

From an investor’s viewpoint, that same profit scenario represents 10 cents of every dollar invested in the company. That’s 10 cents of capital a business can use to either invest back into the company or can be used to pay down company debt.

On the other end of the equation, if XYZ Company generates an annual investment return of 10% yet owns an average annual cost of capital of 15%, that company is down 5 cents on each dollar invested in the company.

In that scenario, XYZ Co. is in a bind that no company wants to find itself in – its costs of doing business exceed its investment returns. That translates into fewer investors until the firm realigns its financing picture, cuts debt, and gives investors a good reason to buy its stocks and bonds.

Why the Need for Weighted Average Cost of Capital?

The weighted average cost of capital breaks down a firm’s cost of doing business by weighing the debt (including bonds and other long-term debt) and equity structure (including the cost of both common and preferred stock) of the company.

Primarily, companies need to finance their operations in three ways:

1. Debt financing

2. Equity financing

3. A combination of debt and equity

No matter which option a company chooses, sources of capital come with a financial cost.

The WACC seeks to find the “true cost of money” in operating a business by comparing the cost of borrowing of capital to run a company versus raising capital through equity to pay for common business needs like property and equipment, research and development, human capital (i.e., employees), and business expansion, among other costs.

When company executives know the WACC, they can leverage that financial ratio to decide on funding the firm through debt or equity financing. The cost of equity will depend on the value of the company’s stock, while the cost of debt will reflect interest rates.

Basically, companies require an accurate weighted cost of capital to properly weigh expenses and provide fair cost of analysis on projects in the pipeline. Additionally, companies can leverage their WACC to evaluate their capital structure and weigh the myriad financial sources needed to fund operations, proportioned accurately.

Using one form of capital to fund a company’s operations makes the cost of capital formula fairly simple. However, when companies use multiple forms of capital the formula becomes more complicated and requires financial modeling.

The Takeaway

The weighted average cost of capital is not exactly a precise measurement of a company’s financial health, but it can be a highly useful one, especially for investors. If you’re looking at potentially investing in a company, it can be one piece of information that provides more detail into the company’s relative strength.

The data is easily found in a publicly-traded company’s balance sheets, which are made available to investors on a regular basis. Just visit the company’s web site, locate its financial information page, and look for the relevant data.

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FAQ

How can you calculate WACC for a private company?

Calculating WACC for a private company is more or less the same process as calculating WACC for a public company, but the calculation will need to be done using estimates of the company’s value, perhaps through cash flow analysis.

What is the difference between WACC and Required Rate of Return (RRR)?

While WACC and RRR are similar, the two are distinct from one another. In fact, WACC can be a tool used to determine RRR, but the two produce different values that can be important for investors for different reasons.

How does WACC influence sensitivity analysis?

WACC calculations can change in different scenarios, and sensitivity analysis can help determine how and what those changes are. Effectively, by experimenting with different values, you can get a sense of how sensitive a WACC calculation is, which can be important for investors.

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Oct

2023

What Is a Financial Instrument? Types & Asset Classes Explained

By Rebecca Lake | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

A financial instrument is simply a contract between entities that represents the exchange of money for a certain asset. Financial instruments include most types of investments: cash, stocks, bonds, mutual funds, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), certificates of deposit (CDs), loans, derivatives, and more.

Financial instruments facilitate the movement of capital through the markets and the broader economic system. While this may take different forms, the flow of capital remains a central feature.

What Is a Financial Instrument?

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) defines a financial instrument as cash; evidence of an ownership interest in a company or other entity; or a contract. A financial instrument confers either a right or an obligation to the holder of the instrument, and is an asset that can be created, modified, traded, or settled.

Investors can trade financial instruments on a public exchange. The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) is an example of a spot market in which investors can trade equity instruments for immediate delivery.

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Financial Instrument vs Security

A security is a type of financial instrument with a fluctuating monetary value that carries a certain amount of risk for the individual or entity that holds it. Investors can trade securities through a public exchange or over-the-counter market.

The federal government regulates securities and the securities industry under a series of laws, including the Securities Act of 1933, the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, and the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010.

All securities are financial instruments but not all financial instruments are securities.

Like financial instruments, securities fall into different groups or categories. The four types of securities include:

• Equities. Equities represent an ownership interest in a company. Stocks and mutual funds are examples of equity securities.

• Debt. Debt refers to money lent by investors to corporate or government entities. Corporate and municipal bonds are two examples of debt securities.

• Derivatives. Derivatives are financial contracts whose value is tied to an underlying asset. Futures and stock options are derivative instruments.

• Hybrid. Hybrid securities combine aspects of debt and equity. Convertible bonds are a type of hybrid instrument.

Types of Financial Instruments

Financial instruments are not all alike. There are different types of financial instruments in different asset classes. Certain financial instruments are more complex in nature than others, meaning they may require more knowledge or expertise to handle or trade.

1. Cash Instruments

Cash instruments are financial instruments whose value fluctuates based on changing market conditions. Cash instruments can be securities traded on an exchange, such as stocks, or other types of financial contracts.

For example, a certificate of deposit account (CD) is a type of cash instrument. Loans also fall under the cash instrument heading as they represent an agreement or contract between two parties where money is exchanged.

2. Derivative Instruments

Derivative instruments or derivatives draw their value from an underlying asset, and fluctuate based on the changing value of the underlying security or benchmark.

As mentioned, options are a type of derivative instrument, as are futures contracts, forwards, and swaps.

3. Foreign Exchange Instruments

Foreign exchange instruments are financial instruments associated with international markets. For example, in forex trading investors trade currencies from different currencies through global exchanges.

Asset Classes of Financial Instruments

Financial instruments can also be broken down by asset class.

4. Debt-Based Financial Instruments

Companies use debt-based financial instruments as a means of raising capital. For example, say a municipal government wants to launch a road improvement project but lacks the funding to do so. They may issue one or more municipal bonds to raise the money they need.

Investors buy these bonds, contributing the capital needed for the road project. The municipal government then pays the investors back their principal at a later date, along with interest.

5. Equity-Based Financial Instruments

Equity-based financial instruments convey some form of ownership of an entity. If you buy 100 shares of stock in XYZ company, for example, you’re purchasing an equity-based instrument.

Equity-based instruments can help companies raise capital, but the company does not have to pay anything back to investors. Instead, investors may receive dividends from the stock shares they own, or realize profits if they’re able to sell those shares for a capital gain.

Are Commodities Financial Instruments?

Commodities such as oil or gas, precious metals, agricultural products and other raw materials are not considered financial instruments. A commodity itself, such as pork or copper, doesn’t direct the flow of capital.

That said, there are certain instruments whereby commodities are traded, including stocks, exchange-traded funds, and futures contracts.

A futures contract represents an agreement to buy or sell a certain commodity at a specific price at a future date. So, for example, an orange grower might sell a futures contract agreeing to sell a certain amount of their crop for a set price. An orange juice company could then buy a contract to purchase oranges at X price.

For the everyday investor, futures trading in commodities typically doesn’t mean you plan to take delivery of two tons of coffee beans or 4,000 bushels of corn. Instead, you buy a futures contract with the intention of selling it before it expires.

💡 Quick Tip: It’s smart to invest in a range of assets so that you’re not overly reliant on any one company or market to do well. For example, by investing in different sectors you can add diversification to your portfolio, which may help mitigate some risk factors over time.

Uses of Financial Instruments

Investors and businesses may use financial instrument for the following purposes:

1. As a Means of Payment

You already use financial instruments in your everyday life. When you write a check to pay a bill or use cash to buy groceries, you’re exchanging a financial instrument for goods and services.

Likewise, business entities may charge purchases to a business credit card. They’re borrowing money from the credit card company and paying it back at a later date, often with interest.

2. Risk Transfer

Investors use financial instruments to transfer risk when trading options and other derivative instruments, such as interest rate swaps. With options, for example, an investor has the option to buy or sell an underlying asset at a specified price on or before a predetermined date. A contract exists between the individual who writes the option and the individual who buys it. This type of financial instrument allows an investor to speculate about which way prices for a particular security may move in the future.

3. To Store Value

Businesses often use financial instruments in this way. For example, say you default on a credit card balance. Your credit card company can write off the amount as a bad debt and sell it to a debt collector. Meanwhile, businesses with outstanding invoices they’re awaiting payment on can use factoring or accounts receivables financing to borrow against their value.

4. To Raise Capital

Companies may issue stocks or bonds in order to get access to capital that they can invest in their business. In this case, the financial instruments could be a means of raising capital for one party and a store of value for the other.

Importance of Financial Instruments

Financial instruments are central to not only the stock market, but also the financial and economic system as a whole. They provide structures and legal obligations that facilitate the regulated exchange of capital via investing, lending and borrowing, speculation and growth.

In short, financial instruments keep the financial markets moving, and they also help businesses to keep their doors open and allow consumers to manage their finances, plan for the future, and invest with the hope of future gains.

For example, you may also have a savings account that you use to hold your emergency fund, an Individual Retirement Account (IRA) that you use to save for retirement and a taxable brokerage account for trading stocks. Your checking account is one of the basic tools you might use to pay bills or make purchases.

You might be paying down a mortgage or student loans while occasionally using credit cards to spend. All of these financial instruments allow you to direct the flow of money from one place to another.

The Takeaway

Financial instruments are integral to every aspect of the financial world, and they also play a significant part in business transactions and day-to-day financial management. If you trade stocks, invest in an IRA, or write checks to your landlord, then you’re contributing to the movement of capital with various financial instruments. Understanding the different types of financial instruments is the first step in becoming a steward of your own money.

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Oct

2023

What is the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)?

By Brian O'Connell | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is an investment assessment formula that shines a light on the relationship between the systematic risk in a security and its estimated return. Investors use the CAPM to determine whether an investment’s expected return is the same as its risk-free return, and to determine an asset’s expected returns.

CAPM Defined

The Capital Asset Pricing Model makes the process of measuring investment return and risk more efficient, to determine whether a particular asset offers an acceptable rate of return.

CAPM is especially helpful when an investor faces significant investment risk, such as when trading equity options. The formula helps the investor determine whether the transaction has an acceptable measure of risk. By using CAPM, the investor is able to accurately assess if the potential investment return on a security is worth taking on.

Evaluating the fair value of a security is an ongoing endeavor, as investment risk factors and other variables change all the time. When those risks shift (think interest rate changes, company management changes, or a geopolitical crisis erupts, among other potential threats), investors can still use the capital asset pricing model to weigh an investment against constant risk and return variables.

Investors can factor market impactors, like interest rate flows, currency valuations, and stock market cycles, among other issues, into their CAPM analysis to better weigh risk versus return. Basically, the bigger the chance of risk, the more important CAPM becomes to investors weighing that risk against potential returns.

💡 Quick Tip: Look for an online brokerage with low trading commissions as well as no account minimum. Higher fees can cut into investment returns over time.

What Is the CAPM Formula?

CAPM can help evaluate an investment’s viability in a time of significant market angst, by measuring three important barometers in an investment equation – risk-free return, the market risk premium, and the investment beta.

Let’s take a look at how CAPM is calculated with all three factors included.

The (capital asset pricing model) CAPM formula is represented as below:

Expected Rate of Return = Risk-Free Premium + Beta * (Market Risk Premium) Ra = Rrf + βa * (Rm – Rrf)

The calculation reflects a series of financial metrics, which taken together can offer a balanced look at a potential investment’s risk and return, with the aforementioned metrics front and center.

Risk-Free Return (Rrf)

This metric represents the value given to an investment (like a stock or commodity trading, for example) that provides return with no risk. U.S. Treasury bond, backed by the full faith and credit of the United States government, are a good example of risk-free return in action.

Since the U.S. government guarantees the bonds, and there is virtually zero chance of the U.S. defaulting on its debt obligations, Treasuries are considered among the safest investments available. That’s a big reason why risk-free return value reflects the yield delivered by a 10-year U.S. government bond.

The Market Risk Premium (Rm-Rrf)

This financial metric represents the return an investor earns – or anticipates earning – from owning a more risk-abundant portfolio. The MPA is an important component of CAPM, as it enables an investor to assess risk and decide if the market premium rate is superior to an investment in a risk-free investment like U.S. bonds.

The Beta (Ba)

Wall Street analysts rely on beta to weigh the volatility of a given security against a broader market.

For instance, an investor looking to buy 100 shares of an emerging biotech company can use beta to evaluate that investment and see how it may perform if the broader stock market turns volatile. In that scenario, that biotech stock’s beta may be 13%, which means it would trigger a 130% variation from any significant (based on the exact calculation) of any shift in the broader stock market. Beta is always equal to 1 in any market evaluation equation, meaning it’s parallel to any potential shifts in a broader market

CAPM Formula Explained

Factoring in each component to the CAPM equation, the resulting formula looks like this:

Expected return = Risk-free rate + (beta x market risk premium).

The risk-free component focuses on the time value of money, or the concept that a cash amount in present form is potentially higher than the same amount of cash down the road, primarily because of money’s current earnings potential. A CAPM formula may also factor in excess risks taken on by an investor.

Next, beta is assessed to figure out just how much risk is on the table relative to the broader market. For instance, if ABC stock offers more risk than the broader market, its beta is higher than 1 (one). A beta that is lower than 1 assumes the investment will curb portfolio risk, which may make a security more palatable to risk-averse investors.

With the beta calculated, beta is multiplied by the market risk premium, and the result (value) is added into the investment’s risk-free rate to provide the security’s estimated rate of return.

In conducting a CAPM exercise, the investor must acknowledge some level of risk in any investment, primarily in two ways.

• Loss is always possible, as common market securities like stocks, commodities, funds, or currencies may lose money, making them a depreciation risk.

• The higher level of risk in a specific security often correlates to a higher potential investment return, as history shows that specific investments carry more risks and more rewards than others (stock options and future.

Advantages to Capital Asset Pricing Model

The chief advantages to the capital asset pricing model are that it’s relatively simple and easy to use, it takes systemic risk into consideration, it has a wide range of potential uses (when other models may not do the trick, for instance), and for that reason, is often seen as a superior model to others, such as the WACC formula.

Problems with the CAPM

While the CAPM is an extremely useful tool for investors, it does have some drawbacks. One such drawback is the reliance on the risk-free rate and the beta. As such, CAPM must be constantly recalculated in order to remain useful. It also does not account for transaction costs such as taxes and fees, which could make a potential investment less favorable than the model shows.

Efficient Frontiers and the Capital Asset Pricing Model

In theory, if an investor adhered perfectly to CAPM all of their investments would exist on the efficient frontier, meaning that all returns justify the risks taken. The efficient frontier is the optimal baseline for a portfolio, Since every investment comes with some risk, it’s important to make sure that the returns correspond to the level of risk.

CAPM and the Security Market Line (SML)

The security market line, or SML, is a graphical representation of the CAPM formula, and shows expected returns for a security. Specifically, it shows the relationship between beta and expected return. When used in conjunction with the CAPM formula, investors can use the SML to try and get a sense of whether a prospective investment offers a good enough expected return when all risks are taken into account.

Practical Value of the CAPM

Many investors probably wonder if, when it comes down to it, CAPM has much practical value. While that will ultimately depend on the individual investor, it may be fair to say that the CAPM has value in that it’s widely used, and can give investors a broad or general idea of the risks and potential returns involved with a single investment. Again, it’s not the only model or formula that does that – but can be yet another tool that an investor can have in their analytical tool box.

The Takeaway

CAPM can help investors understand how the risk and return of a given investment relate to each other. Having the answer to that question can help investors make more knowledgeable portfolio decisions on an ongoing basis.

CAPM is also a fairly high-level investing concept, and one that many investors may never use or encounter. That’s not to say it doesn’t have its uses – but if you feel that it’s over your head or too advanced, you can always consult with a financial professional for guidance.

For a limited time, opening and funding an Active Invest account gives you the opportunity to get up to $1,000 in the stock of your choice.

FAQ

What are some of the assumptions built into the CAPM model?

A few assumptions built into the CAPM model are that all investors are naturally risk-averse, that investors are evaluating investments within the same time period, and that investors have unlimited capital to borrow at a relatively risk-free rate of return.

What are alternatives to the CAPM?

Some alternatives to the CAPM include arbitrage pricing theory, or APT, and the Fama-French Model. There are others out there, too, which may or may not be perfect substitutes or alternatives to the CAPM.

What is the International Capital Asset Pricing Model (ICAPM)?

The International Capital Asset Pricing Model, or ICAPM, is more or less an extension of the CAPM, and incorporates or includes international investments.

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