InvestZ Archives | Page 160 of 163

Jan

2022

What Is a Bull Call Spread Option? A Comprehensive Overview

By Brian Nibley | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

A bull call spread, also known as a long call spread or a vertical spread, is an options trading strategy used to capitalize on moderate price increases for a stock. The strategy has two legs and involves writing one option and buying another.

Investors use a bull call spread when they’d like to take advantage of a slightly bullish trend in a stock without taking too much risk. This type of options trading strategy limits both profits and losses, making it a popular strategy for investors with limited capital and a desire for downside protection.

Recommended: A Beginner’s Guide to Options Trading

What Is a Bull Call Spread Position?

To initiate a bull call spread, options traders buy a call option at a lower strike price while selling a call with a higher strike price. Both options have the same expiration date and underlying asset.

This options strategy establishes a net debit or cost and makes money when the underlying stock rises in price. The potential profits hit a limit when the stock price rallies higher than the strike price of the short call, while potential losses hit a limit if the stock price declines beneath the strike price of the long call (the one with a lower strike price).

In a bull call spread, a trader cannot lose more than the net premium plus commissions. A trader’s maximum gain is the difference between the strike prices of the short and long call and net premium plus commissions.

Recommended: How to Sell Options for Premium

Bull Call Spread Example

Let’s say a trader establishes a bull call spread by purchasing a call option for a premium of $10. The call option has a strike price of $50 and expires in April 2022. The trader also sells (or writes) a call option for a premium of $2. The call option has a strike price of $70 and expires in April 2022. The underlying asset of both options is the same and currently trades at $50.

In establishing these options positions, the trader paid $10 (from buying the long call) and gained $2 (from writing the short call). The net amount of these two contracts adds up to a net cost of $8.

Assume that the expiration date of April 2022 has arrived.

With a stock price of $60 or above, the trader’s investment cannot gain more than $3 due to both calls being in-the-money. If the stock price were $65, for example, the investor would gain through the long call by being able to buy shares for $50 and sell at the market price of $65. They would also lose through the short call due, since they’d have to buy shares at the market price of $65 and sell to the option holder at a price of $60.

After net commissions, the trader would realize a net gain of $3.

At a price of $50 or less, the trader’s loss is limited to $7, since both calls would be out-of-the-money. At a stock price of $45, for example: the trader wouldn’t gain from the long call, and would not lose from the short call.

After net commissions, the trader would realize a net loss of $7.

Variables Impacting a Bull Call Spread

As with any options trading strategy, various potential factors can have an effect on how the trade will play out. The ideal market forecast for a bull call spread is “modestly bullish,” or that the underlying asset’s price will gradually increase.

As with all options, the price of the underlying security is only one of several factors that can impact the trade.

Stock Price Change

A bull call spread will increase in value as its underlying stock price rises and decline in value as the stock price falls. This kind of position is referred to as having a “net positive delta.”

Delta estimates how much the price of an option could change as the underlying security price changes. The change in option price is usually less than that of the stock price – the stock price could fall by $1, but the option may only fall by $0.50, for example.

Because a bull call spread contains one short call and one long call, the net delta doesn’t change much when the stock price changes on any given day. In options vocabulary, this is called “near-zero gamma.” Gamma provides an estimation of how much the delta of a position could change when the stock price changes.

Change in Volatility

Volatility refers to how much a stock price fluctuates in percentage terms. Implied volatility (IV) is a factor in options pricing. When volatility rises, opti prices often rise if other factors remain unchanged.

Because a bull call spread consists of one short call and one long call, the price of this position changes little when volatility changes (an exception may be when higher strike prices carry higher volatility). In options vocabulary, this is called having a “near-zero vega.” Vega is an estimation of how much an option price could change with a change in volatility when other factors remain constant.

Time

Time is another important variable that influences the price of an option. As expiration approaches, an option’s total value decreases, a process called time decay.

The sensitivity to time decay in a bull call spread depends on where the stock price is in relation to the strike prices of the spread. If the stock price is near or below the price of the long call (lower strike), then the price of the bull call spread declines (and loses money) as time goes on. This occurs because the long call is closer to the money and loses value faster than the short call.

On the other hand, if the price of the underlying stock is near or above the strike price of the short call (higher strike), then the price of a bull call spread rises (and makes money) as time goes on. This occurs because the short call has become closer to the money in this situation and therefore loses value quicker than the long call.

In the event that the stock price is half-way between both strike prices, time decay will have little impact on the price of a bull call spread. In this scenario, both call options decay at more or less the same rate.

Risk of Early Assignment

Traders holding American-style options can exercise them on any trading day up to the day of expiry. Those who hold short stock options have no control over when they may have to fulfill the obligation of the contract.

The long call in a bull call spread doesn’t have early assignment risk, but the short call does. Calls that are in-the-money and have less time value than the dividends that a stock pays are likely to be assigned early.

This can happen because when the dividend payout is greater than the price of the option, traders would rather hold the stock and receive the dividend. For this reason, early assignment of call options usually happens the day before the ex-dividend date of the underlying stock (the day by which investors must hold the stock in order to receive the dividend payout).

When the stock price of a bull call spread is above the strike price of the short call (the call with a higher strike price), traders must determine the likelihood that their option could be assigned early. If it looks like early assignment is likely, and a short stock position is not desirable, then a trader must take action.

There are two ways to do away with the risk of early assignment. Traders can either:

• Close the entire spread by buying the short call to close and selling the long call to close, or

• Buy to close the short call and leave the long call open.

Pros and Cons of Using a Bull Call Spread

The main advantages of using a bull call spread is that it costs less than buying a single call option and limits potential losses. In the earlier example, the trader would have had to pay a $10 premium if she had only been using one call option. With a bull call spread, she only has to pay a net of $8.

The potential losses are lower as well. If the stock were to fall to zero, our trader would realize a loss of just $8 rather than $10 (if she were using only the long call option).

The biggest drawback of using a bull call spread is that it limits potential gains as well. In the example above, our trader can only realize a maximum gain of $27 because of the short call option position. In the event that the stock price were to soar to $400 or higher, she would still only realize a $27 profit.

The Takeaway

A bull call spread is a two-leg options trading strategy that involves buying a long call and writing a short call. Traders use this strategy to try and capitalize on moderately bullish price momentum while capping both losses and gains.

As with all trades involving options, there are many variables to consider that can alter how the trade plays out. That’s why a platform like SoFi’s that offers educational resources about options can come in handy. Plus, the SoFi options trading platform allows investors to trade options through the mobile app or web platform.

Trade options with low fees through SoFi.

Photo credit: iStock/kupicoo

SoFi Invest®

INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE

Jan

2022

What Is a Naked Put Options Strategy?

By Brian O'Connell | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

A naked put option, also known as an “uncovered put,” is a risky options strategy in which a trader writes (i.e. sells) a put option with no corresponding short position in the underlying asset. While this strategy allows the trader to collect the option premium up front, in hopes that the underlying asset will rise in value, it carries significant downside loss potential should the price of the underlying asset decline.

Here’s what you need to know about naked put options:

Understanding Naked Put Options

As a refresher, the buyer of a put option has the right, but not the obligation, to sell an underlying security at a specific price. On the flip side, the seller of a put option is obliged to purchase the underlying asset at the strike price if and when the option buyer chooses to exercise.

Writing a naked put means that the trader is betting that the underlying security will rise in value or hold steady. If, at the option’s expiration date, the price of the underlying security is above the strike price, the options contract will expire worthless, allowing the seller to keep the premium. The potential profit of the trade is capped at the initial premium collected.

The risk of a naked put option trade is that the potential losses can be much greater than the premium initially gained. If the price of the underlying security declines below the strike price, the option seller can be forced to take assignment of shares in the underlying security. The options seller would then have to either hold those shares, or sell them in the open market at a loss (since they were obligated to purchase them at the strike price).

Requirements for Trading Naked Put Options

Investors have to clear some hurdles before being able to engage in a naked put transaction.

Typically, that begins with getting cleared for margin trading by their broker or investment trading firm. A margin account allows an investor to be extended credit from their trading firm in order to actually sell a naked put.

There are two main requirements to be approved for a margin account in order to trade naked put options.

• The investor must demonstrate the financial assets to cover any portfolio trading losses.

• The investor must declare they understand the risks inherent when investing in derivative trading, including naked put options.

Selling Naked Puts

A trader initiates a naked put by selling (writing) a put option without an accompanying short position in the underlying asset.

From the start of the trade until the option expires, the investor keeps a close eye on the underlying security, hoping it rises in value, which would create a profit for them. If the underlying security loses value, the investor may have to buy the underlying security to cover the position, in the event that the buyer of the put option chooses to exercise.

With a naked put option, the maximum profit is limited to the premium collected up front, and is obtained if the underlying security’s price closes either at or above the option contract’s strike price at the expiration date. If the underlying security loses value, or worse, the value of the underlying security plummets to $0, the financial loss can be substantial.

In real world terms, however, the naked put options seller would see the underlying security falling in value and would likely step in and buy back the options contract in advance of any further decline in the security’s share price.

Naked Versus Covered Puts

We’ve mentioned a few times so far that in a naked put, the trader has no corresponding short position in the underlying asset. To understand why that is important, we need to talk about the difference between covered puts and naked puts.

A covered put means the put option writer has a short position in the underlying stock. As a reminder, a short position means that the investor has borrowed shares of a security and sold them on the open market, with the plan of buying them back at a lower price.

This changes the dynamics of the trade, compared with a naked (uncovered) put. If the price of the underlying security declines, losses incurred on the put option will be offset by gains on the short position. However, the risk instead is that the price of the underlying security could move significantly upward, incurring losses on the underlying short position.

Recommended: The Risks and Rewards of Naked Options

Example of a Naked Put Option

Here’s an example of how trading a naked put can work:

XYZ stock is trading at $50 per share. Alice, a qualified investor, opts to sell a put option expiring in 30 days with a strike price of $50 for a premium of $4. Typically, when trading equity options, a single contract controls 100 shares – so the total premium, her initial gain, is $400. If the price of XYZ is above $50 after 30 days, the option would expire worthless, and Alice would keep the entire $400 premium.

To look at the downside scenario, suppose the price of XYZ falls to $40. In this case, Alice would be required to buy shares in XYZ at $50 (the strike price), but the market value of those shares is only $40. She can sell them on the open market, but will incur a loss of $10 per share. Her loss on the sale is $1,000 (100 x $10), but is offset by the premium gained on the sale of the option, bringing her net loss to $600. Alternatively, Alice could choose not to sell the shares, but hold them instead, in the hope that they will appreciate in value.

There’s also a break-even point in this trade that investors should understand. Imagine that XYZ stock slides from $50 to $46 per share over the next 30 days. In this case, Alice loses $400 ($4 per share) after buying the shares at $50 and selling them at $46, which is offset by the $400 gained on the premium.

The maximum potential loss in any naked put option sale occurs if XYZ’s stock price goes to $0. In this instance, the loss would be $5,000 ($50 per share x 100 shares), offset by the $400 premium for a net loss of $4,600. Practically speaking, a trader would likely repurchase the option and close the trade before the stock falls too significantly. This can depend on a trader’s risk tolerance, and the stop-loss setting on the trade.

The Takeaway

The big risk of a naked put option trade is that the potential losses can be much greater than the premium initially gained, while the maximum profit is limited to the premium collected up front. The seller of an uncovered put thinks the underlying asset will rise in value or hold steady.

If you’re ready to start trading options, check out SoFi’s options trading platform. A user-friendly options trading platform like SoFi’s is a good place to start, especially because it offers numerous educational resources about options.

Pay low fees when you start options trading with SoFi.

Photo credit: iStock/damircudic

SoFi Invest®

INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE

Dec

2021

What Are Actively Managed ETFs?

By AJ Smith | Going to College, invest, Investing, Terminology | Comments Off

Exchange-traded funds or ETFs generally fall into two categories: actively managed and passively managed. Actively managed ETFs, a growing category in the ETF market, are overseen by a portfolio manager.

The goal of an active manager is to outperform a certain market index, which they use as a benchmark for their portfolio. By contrast, passive ETFs simply mirror the performance of a particular market index; they don’t aim to outperform it.

There are two types of actively managed ETFs: transparent and non-transparent. Active non-transparent ETFs are a new option that was introduced in 2019; these funds are sometimes called ANTs.

Keep reading to learn more about the distinction among different ETFs, the pros and cons, and whether investing in actively managed ETFs makes sense for you.

Table of Contents

How Actively Managed ETFs Work
Index ETFs vs Active ETFs
Mutual Funds vs Actively Managed ETFs
Pros and Cons of Actively Managed ETFs
Investing in Actively Managed ETFs
The Takeaway

How Actively Managed ETFs Work

Actively managed ETFs employ a portfolio manager and typically a team of analysts who do market research and make decisions to buy, hold, or sell the assets held within the fund. Most ETFs are designed to reflect a certain market sector or niche. They typically measure their success by using a known index as their benchmark.

For example, a technology ETF would be invested in tech companies and potentially use the Nasdaq composite index as a benchmark to measure its performance.

Despite the fact that passive (or index) ETFs strategies predominate in the industry — index ETFs represent roughly 98% of the ETF market — active strategies are gaining ground. That said, it has been historically quite difficult for active fund managers to beat their benchmarks.

Actively managed transparent and non-transparent ETFs are similar to traditional (i.e. index) ETFs. You can trade them on stock exchanges throughout the day, and investors can buy and sell in amounts as small as a single share. Broad availability and low investment minimums are an advantage that ANTs (and ETFs more generally) boast over many mutual funds.

Actively managed transparent ETFs

When exchange-traded funds first appeared some 20 years ago, only passive ETFs were allowed by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). In 2008, though, the SEC introduced a streamlined approval process that allowed for a type of actively managed ETF called transparent ETFs. These funds were required to disclose their holdings on a daily basis, similar to passive ETFs. Investors would then know exactly which securities were being traded within the fund.

Many active fund managers, however, didn’t want to reveal their trading strategies on a daily basis — which is one reason why there have been fewer actively managed ETFs vs. index ETFs to date.

Non-transparent or semi-transparent ETFs

In 2019, another rule change from the SEC permitted an active ETF structure that would be partially instead of fully transparent. Under this new rule, an active ETF manager would be allowed to either reveal the constituents of their portfolio less often (e.g. quarterly, like actively managed mutual funds), or communicate their holdings more obliquely, by using various accounting methods like proxy securities or weightings.

The SEC ruling opened up a new channel for active managers, and since then the number of actively managed ETFs has grown. According to Barron’s, in just the past two years the number of actively managed ETFs has more than doubled. Nearly 60% of the ETFs launched in 2020 and 2021 were actively managed — more than all the actively managed ETFs established in the past decade.

From an investor’s perspective, the most noticeable difference between these two kinds of actively managed ETFs — transparent vs. non-transparent — would be the frequency with which these funds disclose their holdings. Both types of ETFs trade on exchanges at prices that change constantly during trading days; both rely on a team of managers to select and trade securities.

Index ETFs vs Active ETFs

So what is the difference between index ETFs and actively managed ETFs? It’s essentially the same difference that exists between index mutual funds and actively managed mutual funds.

How do index ETFs work?

Index ETFs, also called passive ETFs, track a specific market index. A market index is a compilation of securities that represent a certain sector of the market; indexes (or indices) are frequently used to gauge the health of certain industries, or as broader economic indicators. There are thousands of indexes that represent the equity markets alone, and Well-known indexes include the S&P 500®, an index of 500 of the biggest U.S. companies by market capitalization, as well as the Russell 2000, an index of small- to mid-cap companies, and many more.

Because index ETFs simply track a market sector via its index, there is no need for an active, hands-on manager. As a result the cost of these funds is typically lower than actively managed ETFs, and many active and passive mutual funds as well.

How do actively managed ETFs work?

Actively managed ETFs, often called active ETFs, rely on a portfolio manager and a team of analysts to invest in companies that also reflect a certain market sector. But these funds are not tied to the securities in any given index. The ETF manager invests in their own selection of securities, but often uses an index as a benchmark to gauge the success of their strategies.

Transparent actively managed ETFs must reveal their holdings each day.

Actively managed non-transparent ETFs, or ANTs, aren’t required to disclose their holdings on a daily basis. This protects asset managers’ strategies from potential “front-runners” — traders or portfolio managers that try to anticipate their trades. By and large, the cost of these funds is lower than transparent ETFs, and also lower than actively managed mutual funds.

Mutual Funds vs Actively Managed ETFs

All mutual funds and exchange-traded funds are examples of pooled investment strategies, where the fund bundles together a portfolio of securities to offer investors greater diversification than they could achieve on their own. In addition to the potential benefits of diversification, which may mitigate some risk factors, the pooled fund concept also creates economies of scale which helps fund managers keep transaction costs low.

That said, the structure or wrapper of mutual funds vs. passive and active ETFs, is quite different.

Fund structure

Although a mutual fund invests directly in securities, ETFs do not. With both active and passive ETFs, the fund creates and redeems shares on an in-kind basis. So when investors buy and sell ETF shares, the portfolio manager gives or receives a basket of securities from an authorized participant, or third party, which generates the ETF shares.

By comparison, mutual fund shares are fixed. You can’t create more of them based on demand. But you can with an ETF, thanks to the “in-kind” creation and redemption of shares. This means that ETF fund flows don’t create the same trading costs that might impact long-term investors in a mutual fund. And fund outflows don’t require the portfolio manager to sell appreciated positions, and thus minimize capital gains distributions to shareholders.

Pricing

The price of mutual fund shares is calculated once a day, at the end of the day, and is based on a fund’s net asset value (NAV). Investors who place a trade must wait until the NAV is calculated because most standard open-end mutual funds can only be bought and sold at their NAV.

ETFs, by contrast, are traded like stocks throughout the day. And because of the way ETF shares are created and redeemed, the NAV can vary, creating a wider or tighter bid-ask spread, depending on volume.

Fees

The expense ratio of mutual funds includes management fees, operational expenses, and 12b-1 fees. These 12b-1 fees are a type of marketing and distribution fee that don’t apply to ETFs, which trade on stock exchanges.

Thus the expense ratio for most ETFs, including actively managed ETFs, can be lower than mutual funds.

Pros and Cons of Actively Managed ETFs

As with any investment vehicle, these funds have their pros and cons.

Pros

Potentially for higher returns

One advantage of an actively managed ETF is the potential for gains that could exceed market returns. While very few investment management teams beat the market, those who do tend to produce outsize gains over a short period.

Greater flexibility and liquidity

Active ETFs could also provide greater flexibility amid market turbulence. When world events rattle financial markets, passive investors can’t do much other than go along for the ride.

A fund with active managers might be able to adjust to changing market conditions, however. Portfolio managers could be able to rebalance investments according to current trends, reducing losses, or even profiting from panics and selloffs.

Like passive ETFs, active funds also trade throughout the day (as opposed to some mutual funds who only have their price adjusted once daily), allowing investors the opportunity to do things like short shares of the fund or buy them on margin.

Cons

Higher expense ratios

One disadvantage of investing in an actively managed ETF is the potentially higher expense ratio. Active funds, whether ETFs or mutual funds, tend to have higher expense ratios. The costs associated with paying a professional or entire team of professionals combined with the fees that result from additional buying/selling of investments typically adds up to higher costs over time.

Each purchase or sale might come with a brokerage fee, especially if the securities are foreign-based. These costs exceed those of passive funds, resulting in higher expense ratios.

Performance factors

While active ETFs aim to provide higher returns, most of them don’t. It’s a widely known fact in the investment world that the majority of actively managed funds (as well as most individual investors) do not outperform the market over the long term.

So, while an active ETF may have the potential for greater returns, the risk of lower returns, or even losses, can also be greater. The chances of choosing an active fund that fails to outperform its benchmark are greater than the odds of choosing one that succeeds.

Bid-ask spread

The bid-ask spread of ETFs can vary, and while it’s more beneficial to invest in an ETF with a tighter bid-ask spread, that depends on market factors and the liquidity and trading volume of the fund. To minimize costs, it’s wise for investors to be aware of the bid-ask spread.

Investing in Actively Managed ETFs

Once an investor opens an account at their chosen brokerage, they can begin buying shares or fractional shares of actively managed ETFs.

Historically, brokerages have required investors to buy a minimum of one share of any security, so the minimum investment will most often be the current price of one share of the ETF plus any commissions and fees (many brokerages eliminated fees for buying or selling shares of domestic stocks and ETFs in 2019).

Some brokerages like SoFi Invest® now offer fractional shares, which allow for investors to purchase quantities of stock smaller than one share. This option may appeal to those looking to get started investing with a small amount of money.

It’s important to note that many ETFs pay dividends, which are payouts from the stocks held in the fund. Investors can choose to have their dividends deposited directly into their accounts as cash or automatically reinvested through a dividend reinvestment program (DRIP).

Investors with a long-term plan in mind might do well to take advantage of a DRIP, as it allows for gains to grow exponentially. For those only looking for income, DRIP might defeat the purpose of holding securities that yield dividends, however.

The Takeaway

Like mutual funds, exchange-traded funds or ETFs are considered pooled investments and generally fall into two categories: actively managed and passively managed. Actively managed ETFs, a growing category in the ETF market, are overseen by a portfolio manager. By contrast, passive ETFs simply mirror the performance of a particular market index; they don’t aim to outperform it.

Although actively managed ETFs make up only about 2% of the ETF universe, owing to regulatory changes in recent years this category has been growing. In fact there are now two types of actively managed ETFs: transparent and non-transparent. These funds offer investors the potential upside of active management, with the lower cost, tax-efficiency, and accessibility associated with ETFs. If you’re curious about actively managed ETFs, you can explore these products by opening an account with SoFi Invest®.

Learn more about investing with SoFi.

SoFi Invest®

INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE

SoFi Invest encompasses two distinct companies, with various products and services offered to investors as described below: Individual customer accounts may be subject to the terms applicable to one or more of these platforms.
1) Automated Investing and advisory services are provided by SoFi Wealth LLC, an SEC-registered investment adviser (“SoFi Wealth“). Brokerage services are provided to SoFi Wealth LLC by SoFi Securities LLC.
2) Active Investing and brokerage services are provided by SoFi Securities LLC, Member FINRA (www.finra.org)/SIPC(www.sipc.org). Clearing and custody of all securities are provided by APEX Clearing Corporation.
For additional disclosures related to the SoFi Invest platforms described above please visit SoFi.com/legal.
Neither the Investment Advisor Representatives of SoFi Wealth, nor the Registered Representatives of SoFi Securities are compensated for the sale of any product or service sold through any SoFi Invest platform.

Exchange Traded Funds (ETFs): Investors should carefully consider the information contained in the prospectus, which contains the Fund’s investment objectives, risks, charges, expenses, and other relevant information. You may obtain a prospectus from the Fund company’s website or by email customer service at https://sofi.app.link/investchat. Please read the prospectus carefully prior to investing.
Shares of ETFs must be bought and sold at market price, which can vary significantly from the Fund’s net asset value (NAV). Investment returns are subject to market volatility and shares may be worth more or less their original value when redeemed. The diversification of an ETF will not protect against loss. An ETF may not achieve its stated investment objective. Rebalancing and other activities within the fund may be subject to tax consequences.

Investment Risk: Diversification can help reduce some investment risk. It cannot guarantee profit, or fully protect in a down market.

Tax Information: This article provides general background information only and is not intended to serve as legal or tax advice or as a substitute for legal counsel. You should consult your own attorney and/or tax advisor if you have a question requiring legal or tax advice.

Fund Fees
If you invest in Exchange Traded Funds (ETFs) through SoFi Invest (either by buying them yourself or via investing in SoFi Invest’s automated investments, formerly SoFi Wealth), these funds will have their own management fees. These fees are not paid directly by you, but rather by the fund itself. these fees do reduce the fund’s returns. Check out each fund’s prospectus for details. SoFi Invest does not receive sales commissions, 12b-1 fees, or other fees from ETFs for investing such funds on behalf of advisory clients, though if SoFi Invest creates its own funds, it could earn management fees there.
SoFi Invest may waive all, or part of any of these fees, permanently or for a period of time, at its sole discretion for any reason. Fees are subject to change at any time. The current fee schedule will always be available in your Account Documents section of SoFi Invest.

SOIN20170

Dec

2021

What to Know About Investing in Cryptocurrency

By SoFi Editors | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | No Comments

Since the launch of Bitcoin in 2009, thousands of different cryptocurrencies have entered the market, providing investors with an intriguing — and sometimes confusing — array of choices.

While investing in crypto may offer growth potential, cryptocurrencies as a whole have proven to be a volatile asset class, posting double-digit percentage gains and losses — sometimes within a single day. While such wild price swings have generated lucrative returns for some, others have suffered painful losses.

It’s important for investors to understand the fundamentals and risks of the cryptocurrency market before they start investing. Here’s a closer look at some basics.

Cryptocurrencies 101

Some consider cryptocurrencies to be a form of currency, while others see them as a store of value similar to gold. While the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has yet to decide whether cryptocurrencies can be considered securities or commodities, the reality is that these new instruments have revolutionized the way we think of finance and financial markets.

Not that anyone could have predicted that in 2008, when a person or group using the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto published a paper entitled “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System.” Despite the mystery surrounding Nakamoto’s identity, bitcoin successfully launched in January of 2009.

The first altcoins — a term that refers to “alternatives to bitcoin” — were released in 2011, including Litecoin.

News reports tied use of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies to illegal activity on the dark web. Some major scams and company failures, including the theft of hundreds of thousands of bitcoin on the crypto exchange Mt. Gox, contributed to volatility in the market’s early years.

However, by 2017, mainstream interest in bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies skyrocketed, sending its price close to $20,000. Despite ongoing price fluctuations, by 2021 bitcoin was not only the oldest crypto on the market but still the largest by market cap.

In November 2021, bitcoin would reach an all time high of nearly $69,000 and a total market cap of nearly $1.1 trillion, while the entire crypto market surpassed some $2 trillion in market value.

However, worries of a regulatory crackdown caused many crypto prices to fall in December 2021, as SEC Chair Gary Gensler indicated that many crypto might qualify as securities and thus fall under SEC regulations.

Blockchain 101

Not every cryptocurrency is built using blockchain technology, but some of the largest ones are. A blockchain is an unchangeable record of transactions. These transactions don’t have to be monetary in nature. Blockchains can be used to create contracts, to track the movement of products, to record votes, to prove that property transfers took place, and much more.

Cryptocurrencies and blockchains work hand in hand. For example, here’s how Bitcoin mining works: new coins are created through the process of maintaining the accuracy of its blockchain. Miners use computing power to solve complex cryptographic equations. As these equations are solved, they prove that all of the transactional information on the bitcoin blockchain is accurate.

As a reward for maintaining the blockchain, Bitcoins are created and given to the miners. The bitcoin blockchain is public and decentralized. This means that anyone can view any transaction between two bitcoin addresses. However, you don’t know who owns those addresses.

The decentralization of the blockchain means that there isn’t a single individual, company, or government in charge of Bitcoin and the blockchain. Changes to the blockchain code can be proposed and adopted by the miners. However, 51% or more miners must opt into a change in order for it to be implemented, otherwise Bitcoin forks into two markets.

Cryptocurrency Risks

Every investment comes with risks, and cryptocurrencies are no exception. Here are some the biggest ones investors should be aware of:

1. Price Volatility: As mentioned, the price of Bitcoin halved within the span of a couple weeks in 2021. While the stock market is known for being a volatile asset class, the turbulence in share prices is nowhere near that of cryptocurrency prices. The market is still highly speculative, making it prone to big price swings and increasing the risk of investors locking in losses.

Recommended: Why is Bitcoin So Volatile?

2. Theft: One of the choices investors have to make after buying cryptocurrencies is whether to store the coins and tokens in a hot wallet or cold wallet. Hot wallets are digital storage tools. The risk to them is that they’re more vulnerable to hacks and theft. Take for instance the Mt. Gox incident that occurred in 2011. While the cryptocurrency market has come a long way in terms of security since then, theft and hacks are still a risk.

3. Fraud and Scams: The buzzy nature of the cryptocurrency industry unfortunately means that scammers are also drawn to the market. In 2021, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) reported that between October 2020 and May 2021, more than 7,000 people reported losses of more than $80 million from bogus investment opportunities.

4. Forgotten Keys: While the cold wallet storage solution can prevent hacks, some users of this method have fallen into the unfortunate situation of not remembering their wallet password – or “keys” in crypto lingo. That means there could be fortunes that individuals are not able to cash in on. Of the existing 18.5 million Bitcoin in circulation in January 2021, about 20% was estimated to be “lost” or trapped in a wallet.

5. Regulatory Oversight: Chinese regulators stoked volatility in the cryptocurrency market in 2021, after clamping down on crypto mining operations and ordering payment firms to not do business with companies in the industry. U.K. regulators have also banned a leading crypto exchange. More crypto rules and regulation, including from countries like the U.S., are also expected, which could cause repercussions for usage and prices.

Basic Cryptocurrency Terminology to Know

As cryptocurrency has been growing over the past decade, industry jargon has developed. This terminology is important to know when starting to purchase and store cryptocurrencies. Here are some of the most commonly used words in the crypto space:

Address

If you’re using bitcoin, you have a public “address” where people can send you bitcoins. If you send someone bitcoins, they will see that they received them from your public address. Anyone can look up that public address and see how many bitcoins are in it.

You also have a private address, which is how you secure your bitcoins. Never give anyone your private address. Addresses are generally made up of a string of alphanumeric characters.

Altcoin

Any cryptocurrency that is not bitcoin is called an altcoin.

Crypto

Crypto is simply a shorter name for cryptocurrency.

Decentralization

As mentioned above, blockchain isn’t owned or controlled by anyone, making it decentralized. Many people in the blockchain space feel that decentralization creates more fairness.

Distributed Ledger

A dispersed recording of replicable, synchronized data. In the case of cryptocurrencies, the blockchain is a distributed ledger shared across many different computers and networks.

Exchange

Websites where you can purchase and sell cryptocurrencies are called exchanges.

Fork

A “fork” is when a blockchain permanently splits into a new version. This can take place when miners vote on a change, when a group takes over 51% of the network and changes the blockchain, or if there’s a bug or more commonly a new set of consensus rules come into existence.

FUD

Fear, uncertainty, doubt. FUD describes the emotions that can create panic and cause people to make decisions that affect the market.

Start buying Bitcoin, Ethereum,
and Litecoin today.

HODL

HODL is the philosophy of holding onto and not selling cryptocurrencies. A misspelling of “hold,” this was a joke that became a common term.

ICO

ICO is short for initial coin offering. An ICO is held when a company is raising funds and sells tokens to public or private buyers who then become backers of the project.

Mining

The computing process used to create crypto tokens. Not all cryptocurrencies are created using mining, but it is a common method.

Multisig

There are ways that you can set up a cryptocurrency transaction which require multiple people to sign off on the transaction for it to go through. This is called a multisig transaction.

Peer to Peer

A peer-to-peer (more commonly abbreviated as “P2P”) system doesn’t have a central controller; instead, users interact directly with one another. For example, there are peer-to-peer exchanges where you can sell your bitcoins directly to someone in your local area.

Pumping

When cryptocurrency information gets sensationalized in the media to raise its price or popularity, this is called pumping.

Smart Contract

Smart contracts are coded contracts written into blockchains that allow automated transactions to be executed.

Wallet

Cryptocurrencies are stored in virtual “wallets.” If you keep your cryptocurrencies on an exchange, that exchange controls your wallet. You can also use a digital wallet such as an app on your phone or computer.

One popular form of cryptocurrency wallet is a hardware wallet, which is like a flash drive that stores your cryptocurrencies offline but allows an easy connection to your computer for transacting. There are also paper wallets, which are (believe it or not) simply written records of your public and private addresses for your cryptocurrency. Online wallets are called hot wallets, while offline wallets are called cold wallets or cold storage.

Whale

A person who owns a significant amount of a cryptocurrency. When that person trades it they can actually affect the market price. These people are called whales.

The Top 10 Largest Cryptocurrencies

There are more than 7,000 cryptocurrencies on the market today, according to estimates. Each of them offers different characteristics in their transaction times, liquidity, privacy, and other factors.

Below are the top 10 biggest by market cap, as of July 23, 2021, according to data from CoinMarketCap, which calculates cryptocurrency market caps by taking the price of a digital currency and multiplying it by the number of coins in circulation.

For instance, with Bitcoin, the world’s biggest cryptocurrency by market cap, the price is $32,439.03 and the circulation supply is 18,764,331 on July 23, 2021. Multiplying the two numbers gets a market cap of about $609 billion. CoinMarketCap does this with the biggest cryptocurrencies and then ranks by the market cap of each.

Recommended: Top 30 Crypto By Market Cap

1. Bitcoin

As the first to market, Bitcoin (BTC) continues to be the most popular and highest valued crypto. Any new industry development — including physical ATMs and crypto credit cards — generally works with Bitcoin first.

Major companies now accept Bitcoin, but Bitcoin has a scalability issue, in that it currently can only process seven transactions per second. Visa®, by contrast, can process a maximum of 24,000 per second. Work is being done to improve this transaction speed, but for now Bitcoin may not be the best long-term store of currency to buy your latte with.

2. Ethereum

Although ethereum (ETH) is a cryptocurrency — also known as ether — its main appeal stems from its software platform. The Ethereum network allows for the creation of smart contracts and decentralized applications to be built on it. The cryptocurrency is used to develop and run applications on the software platform, and by investors purchasing other tokens using ether.

3. Tether

Tether (USDT) was the first cryptocurrency marketed as a “stablecoin” – virtual money designed to maintain a fixed value. In the case of Tether, the value of the coin is pegged to a fiat currency – the U.S. dollar. Hence, its ticker is USDT.

In February 2021, the New York attorney general’s office settled a two-year investigation on tether and its sister crypto exchange Bitfinex. Tether had claimed that all its tokens were backed on a one-to-one basis by U.S. dollars in cash reserves.

4. Binance Coin

Binance is the world’s largest cryptocurrency exchange–popular because of its low trading fees. Binance Coin (BNB) is the cryptocurrency “native” to the exchange, which means that it was designed specifically to be used in the Binance ecosystem. Binance Coin launched in 2017 with an ICO.

Binance tries to incentivize investors to use Binance Coin by allowing them to get a 25% discount on trading fees if they use BNB to pay for trades.

5. Cardano

While Cardano lacks some features, it’s considered by some market participants to be a work in progress and has potential to be a cheaper alternative to Ethereum in being a basis for DeFi and NFT projects.

A key feature of ADA is that it has a proof-of-stake blockchain. This means the complicated proof-of-work calculations and high electricity usage required for mining coins like Bitcoin aren’t necessary. Instead, all ADA coins are pre-mined. That could make Cardano appealing to investors who have been critical of the environmental costs of cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin.

6. Ripple

Ripple (XRP) was created to be used by existing banking institutions. Ripple network can process 1,500 transactions per second. Unlike Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies, XRP is not on a blockchain network. Instead, it’s based on what’s called a “hash tree.”

In 2020, the Securities and Exchange Commission sued Ripple and its executives for allegedly misleading investors in XRP by selling more than $1 billion of the virtual tokens without registering with the regulator.

7. USD Coin

USD Coin (USDC) is a stablecoin powered by Ethereum blockchain that is pegged to the U.S. dollar. After the stablecoin Tether came under regulatory trouble for how much it actually backs in reserves, Circle has said its reserves are evaluated and audited by Chicago-based accounting firm Grant Thornton LLP.

In March 2021, Visa announced that it would allow the use of USDC to settle transactions on its payment network–a sign of mainstream acceptance of the crypto market.

8. Dogecoin

Dogecoin had a meteoric rise in 2021, surging through the month of May. The cryptocurrency was started as a joke by its founders in 2013. One of Dogecoin’s most notable features is that it has a Shiba Inu dog on its symbol.

Dogecoin enjoyed popularity in a pattern similar to the way meme stocks did in 2020. Tesla CEO Elon Musk was an advocate of Dogecoin, touting it on social media. On June 1, cryptocurrency exchange Coinbase said it would accommodate Dogecoin, signalling more mainstream acceptance of the cryptocurrency.

9. Polkadot

Polkadot’s coin is called dot (DOT). Polkdot’s creator Gavin Wood is also the co-founder of Ethereum. He wrote the original white paper for Polkadot in 2016.

Central to Polkadot are “parachains” — blockchains that can run higher transaction throughput than Ethereum through design. “Parallel blockchains” — transactions that are spread across multiple computers, similar to parallel processing — have also been touted as having potential as an alternative to Ethereum.

10. Binance USD

Binance USD (BUSD) is a stablecoin that is issued by Binance, the world’s largest cryptocurrency exchange. It’s pegged to the U.S. dollar on a one-to-one basis. It runs on the Ethereum network so can be accepted everywhere for payments or loans where other ERC-20 tokens are.

The Takeaway

Cryptocurrencies can be purchased on major cryptocurrency exchanges or crypto trading platforms. While the digital-asset market is new, trendy and could be a growth opportunity, it’s important for investors to understand that it’s also highly speculative and that all the issues related to safety and security haven’t been worked out.

On SoFi Invest®, investors can trade cryptocurrencies with as little as $10. Their first purchase of $50 or greater will get them a bonus of up to $100 in bitcoin. See full terms at sofi.com/crypto. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Ethereum, Litecoin, Bitcoin Cash, and Ethereum Classic can be traded 24/7. Plus, SoFi takes security seriously and uses a number of tools to keep investors’ crypto holdings secure.

Get started trading crypto on SoFi Invest today.

SoFi Invest®

INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE

SoFi Invest encompasses two distinct companies, with various products and services offered to investors as described below: Individual customer accounts may be subject to the terms applicable to one or more of these platforms.
1) Automated Investing and advisory services are provided by SoFi Wealth LLC, an SEC-registered investment adviser (“SoFi Wealth“). Brokerage services are provided to SoFi Wealth LLC by SoFi Securities LLC.
2) Active Investing and brokerage services are provided by SoFi Securities LLC, Member FINRA (www.finra.org)/SIPC(www.sipc.org). Clearing and custody of all securities are provided by APEX Clearing Corporation.
For additional disclosures related to the SoFi Invest platforms described above please visit SoFi.com/legal.
Neither the Investment Advisor Representatives of SoFi Wealth, nor the Registered Representatives of SoFi Securities are compensated for the sale of any product or service sold through any SoFi Invest platform.

Crypto: Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies aren’t endorsed or guaranteed by any government, are volatile, and involve a high degree of risk. Consumer protection and securities laws don’t regulate cryptocurrencies to the same degree as traditional brokerage and investment products. Research and knowledge are essential prerequisites before engaging with any cryptocurrency. US regulators, including FINRA , the SEC , and the CFPB , have issued public advisories concerning digital asset risk. Cryptocurrency purchases should not be made with funds drawn from financial products including student loans, personal loans, mortgage refinancing, savings, retirement funds or traditional investments. Limitations apply to trading certain crypto assets and may not be available to residents of all states.

External Websites: The information and analysis provided through hyperlinks to third-party websites, while believed to be accurate, cannot be guaranteed by SoFi. Links are provided for informational purposes and should not be viewed as an endorsement.

Tax Information: This article provides general background information only and is not intended to serve as legal or tax advice or as a substitute for legal counsel. You should consult your own attorney and/or tax advisor if you have a question requiring legal or tax advice.

Third-Party Brand Mentions: No brands, products, or companies mentioned are affiliated with SoFi, nor do they endorse or sponsor this article. Third-party trademarks referenced herein are property of their respective owners.

Financial Tips & Strategies: The tips provided on this website are of a general nature and do not take into account your specific objectives, financial situation, and needs. You should always consider their appropriateness given your own circumstances.

SOIN19161

Dec

2021

What Is the Put/Call Ratio?

By Brian Nibley | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing, Terminology | Comments Off

The put to call ratio (PCR) is a mathematical indicator that investors use to determine market sentiment. The ratio reflects the volume of put options and call options placed on a particular market index. Analysts interpret this information into either a bullish (positive) or bearish (negative) near-term market outlook.

The idea is simple: the ratio of how many people are betting against the market versus how many people are betting in favor of the market, should provide a gauge of the general mood investors are in.

A high put-call ratio is thought to be bearish (because more investors are taking short positions) while a low put-call ratio is thought to be bullish (because more investors are taking long positions). Investor Martin Zweig invented the put-call ratio and used it to forecast the 1987 stock market crash.

What are Puts and Calls?

Puts and calls are the most basic types of options contracts. Options contracts give holders the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell a specific number of shares of a given security by a certain date (the expiration date) at an agreed upon price (the strike price). For both puts and calls, one options contract is usually for 100 shares of the underlying security.

The seller of an option is also sometimes called the writer. Options writers receive a fee, called a premium, in exchange for the risk of having to buy or sell shares when the holder of the option chooses to exercise their contract.

There are many factors that influence an option’s premium, and many ways to calculate the value and the risk of options, including the Black-Sholes, trinomial, and Monte Carlo simulations.

Those interested in trading calls and puts and other options strategies may want to research the details further with our options trading guide.

For now, we’re concerned with the basics of call vs. put options so we can better understand the put-call ratio and what it means.

Puts

A put option (or “put”) gives its owner the right to sell a certain number of shares at a predetermined price by a certain date. Investors may also refer to puts as “short positions” because they represent bearish bets on a security’s future.

An investor who buys a put has the option to sell the stock at some point leading up to the expiration date of the contract. Investors may use puts in a variety of ways within the portfolio. For example, a protective put allows an investor who already owns the underlying asset to benefit even if the price of that stock asset goes down.

Calls

A call gives its owner the right to buy a certain number of shares at a predetermined price by a certain date. Calls are also referred to as long positions because they represent bullish bets on a security’s future.

An investor who buys a call has the option to buy the stock at some point leading up to the expiration date.

What Is Put Call Ratio?

The put-call ratio is a measurement of the number of puts versus the number of calls traded on a given security over a certain timeframe. The ratio is expressed as a simple numerical value.

The higher the number, the more puts there are on a security, which shows that investors are betting in favor of future price declines. The lower the number, the more calls there are on a security, indicating that investors are betting in favor of future price increases.

Analysts most often apply this metric to broad market indexes to get a feel for overall market sentiment in conjunction with other data point. For example, the Chicago Board Options Exchange put-to-call ratio is one of seven factors used to calculate the Fear & Greed Index by CNN Business.

The put-call ratio can also be applied to individual stocks by looking at the volume of puts and calls on a stock over a certain period.

How to Calculate the Put-Call Ratio

The put-call ratio equals the total volume of puts for a given time period on a certain market index or security divided by the total volume of calls for the same time period on that same index or security. The CBOE put call ratio is this calculation for all options traded on that exchange.

There can also be variations of this. For example, total put open interest could be divided by total call open interest. This would provide a ratio for the number of outstanding puts versus the number of outstanding calls. Another variation is a weighted put-call ratio, which calculates the dollar value of puts versus calls, rather than the number.

Looking at a put call ratio chart can show you how that ratio has changed over time.

Put-Call Ratio Example

Suppose an investor is trying to assess the overall sentiment for a stock. The stock showed the following volume of puts and calls on a recent trading day:

Number of puts = 1,400

Number of calls = 1,800

The put call ratio for this stock would be 1,400 / 1,800 = 0.77.

How to Interpret the Put-Call Ratio

A specific PCR value can broadly be defined as follows:

• A PCR of less than 1 implies that investors are expecting upward price movement, as they’re buying more call options than put options.

• A PCR of more than 1 implies that investors are expecting downward price movement, as they’re buying more put options than call options.

• A PCR equal to 1 indicates investors expect a neutral trend, as purchases of both types of options are at the same level.

However, while PCR has a specific, mathematical root, it is still open to interpretation, depending on your options trading strategy. Different investors might take the same value to have different meanings.

Contrarian investors, for example, typically believe that the majority is wrong. The best move is to act contrary to what others are doing, in this view. If everyone else is buying something, contrarians believe it might be a good time to sell, or vice-versa. A contrarian investor might therefore perceive a high put/call ratio to be bullish because it suggests that most people believe prices will be heading downward soon.

Momentum investors believe in trying to capitalize on prevailing market trends. “The trend is your friend,” they might say. If the price of something is going up, it could be best to capitalize on that momentum by buying, in this view. A momentum investor could believe the opposite, and that a high PCR should be seen as bearish because prices could be trending downward soon.

To take things a step further, a momentum investor might short a security with a high put-call ratio, hoping that since most investors appear to already be short, this will be the right move. On the other hand, a contrarian investor could do the opposite and establish a long position, based on the idea that what most people expect to happen is the opposite of what’s actually coming.

The Takeaway

The put-call ratio is a simple metric used to gauge market sentiment. While often used on broad market indexes, investors may also apply the PCR to specific securities. Calculating it only involves dividing the volume of puts by the volume of calls on the market for a security.

The put-call ratio is one factor you might consider as you start trading options. A platform like SoFi’s allows you to get started with options trading, thanks to its intuitive and user-friendly design. Investors can also reference a library of educational resources about options.

Trade options with low fees through SoFi.

Photo credit: iStock/PeopleImages

SoFi Invest®

INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE

What Is a Bull Call Spread Option? A Comprehensive Overview

What Is a Bull Call Spread Position?

Bull Call Spread Example

Variables Impacting a Bull Call Spread

Stock Price Change

Change in Volatility

Time

Risk of Early Assignment

Pros and Cons of Using a Bull Call Spread

The Takeaway

What Is a Naked Put Options Strategy?

Understanding Naked Put Options

Requirements for Trading Naked Put Options

Selling Naked Puts

Naked Versus Covered Puts

Example of a Naked Put Option

The Takeaway

What Are Actively Managed ETFs?

How Actively Managed ETFs Work

Actively managed transparent ETFs

Non-transparent or semi-transparent ETFs

Index ETFs vs Active ETFs

How do index ETFs work?

How do actively managed ETFs work?

Mutual Funds vs Actively Managed ETFs

Fund structure

Pricing

Fees

Pros and Cons of Actively Managed ETFs

Pros

Potentially for higher returns

Greater flexibility and liquidity

Cons

Higher expense ratios

Performance factors

Bid-ask spread

Investing in Actively Managed ETFs

The Takeaway

What to Know About Investing in Cryptocurrency

Cryptocurrencies 101

Blockchain 101

Cryptocurrency Risks

Basic Cryptocurrency Terminology to Know

Address

Altcoin

Crypto

Decentralization

Distributed Ledger

Exchange

Fork

FUD

Start buying Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Litecoin today.

HODL

ICO

Mining

Multisig

Peer to Peer

Pumping

Smart Contract

Wallet

Whale

The Top 10 Largest Cryptocurrencies

1. Bitcoin

2. Ethereum

3. Tether

4. Binance Coin

5. Cardano

6. Ripple

7. USD Coin

8. Dogecoin

9. Polkadot

10. Binance USD

The Takeaway

What Is the Put/Call Ratio?

What are Puts and Calls?

Puts

Calls

What Is Put Call Ratio?

How to Calculate the Put-Call Ratio

Put-Call Ratio Example

Start buying Bitcoin, Ethereum,
and Litecoin today.

Student Loan
Refinancing

Personal
Loans

Online
Investments